Special issue with the Sunday Magazine
From the publishers of THE HINDU

MUSIC & DANCE : December 05, 1999

---

Reviving a lost tradition

Swapnasundari

In the history of Kuchipudi, it is the past hundred years or so which are significant, especially in terms of its development as a solo dance form, from its origins as an exclusively male, Bhagavata Mela tradition. Most popular in this derived form, Kuchipudi today is performed as much - if not more - by women as men. In the history of Andhra's dances, what preceded Kuchipudi was centuries of more than a dozen parallel dance traditions, Yakshaganas, folk theatre forms, and a street sampradaya, an exclusively-female dancing tradition in temples.

The origins of most classical dance forms can be traced back to the temple. Temples nurtured dancing traditions and dancers, and as a result the temples were in turn enriched. Andhra Pradesh is no different. There is ample epigraphical evidence to this effect: various inscriptions recording gifts to dancers as well as donations made by dancers can be found. To cite but one example: in the 11th century, at the Bhimeswara temple, 100 khandas of land were gifted to the dancers, singers, mridangists, and priests who served that temple. Similarly, at the same temple, and in the same century, a Prolasaani and Nagasankari gave gifts of an Akhanda Deepam and currency to the temple.

Interestingly, although female dancers rendered ritual service at the temples they served, the term "devadasi" was not used in Andhra Pradesh to denote them; rather, terms such as Vilasini, Gudi Saani, Devara Saani, Bhogam, Paatra and Devarabasavi were in vogue. In later years, such women referred to themselves as Kalavantulu (a term which can be translated as "artists"), and formed guilds to enable the forging of a strong social identity, and protecting their hereditary, often usufruct, right to temple resources.

The art of the Kalavantulu served three main functions: first, there was the strict ritual component, referred to as Angabhogam; second, was dance addressed to the deity, but meant also for the benefit of patrons and connossieurs, termed Rangabhogam. Finally, a dance-operatic form - like Bhagavatams - for staging in the temple courtyards on occasions of temple festivals also developed. It is only in this last tradition, which was devoid of specific ritual content, that men also shared the stage with women.

How did such a sacred dance tradition become secular and later, even profane? The extension of dance at temples to dance at court was perhaps a natural one, given royal patronage of temples and the temple arts in particular. There is inscriptional evidence of the financing of natyamandapas and rangabhogam by royalty. Dancers were clearly mentioned as important members of the court of Vengi Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra of the early 11th century. The most well-known court dancer of this era was Machaladevi, associated with Kakateeya emperor Prataparudra (1291-1323). A legend in her own lifetime, her life history was dramatised and enacted in her own natyashalas. Similar accounts of court dancers can be found in literary sources throughout the years until the early part of this century.

Royal patronage of the temple dancers reached is pinnacle during the time of the Vijayanagara empire, which was well-known for its patronage of the arts in general. For example, during this period separate natyashalas and natakashalas were built at Tirupati, and descendents of a rajanartaki named Muddukmuppai were appointed as aalaya nartakas. Even after the fall of the Vijayanagara empire, the dance forms continued to be nourished by smaller samsthanams (principalities) governed by Reddis, Kammas, Vellamas, and Kshatriyas. Noted among these for their patronage were the samasthanams of Bobbili, Pithapuram, Peddaparuam, Kalahasti, Karvetinagaram, Venkatagiri, to name but a few. The support extended by the Nayaka and Maratha rulers to solo dancing traditions, Yakshaganas, Bhagavata Melams and so on, are perhaps too well known to reiterate here.

For descriptions of the solo dance form, it is necessary to turn to literary sources. One of the earliest descriptions of dance at court can be found in Srinatha's (1385-1475) Palanati Vira Charitra.

"She (the dancer) should offer Pushpanjali to the Gods and start the performance. The Paatra is to . . . display nine types of angaharas with differences of gati chari, bhramara, and pani bhedas . . . For each item she must start with the appropriate stance first . . . . She is to display apt abhinayas to various lyrics in Telugu and Sanskrit with the skillful use of samyuta, asamyuta and nritya hastas, coupled with the expressions and movements of angas, upangas and pratyangas." (translation courtesy the late Dr. Arudra).

These general principles were contained in the dance systems followed by temple dancers of that time all over India. Other descriptions from this era can be found in the works of Nanne Choda (1080-1130), Errapragada (1290-1335), Palkurki Somanatha (1340-1420). Glimpses of many of the features cited by them can be seen even today in the art of the Kalavantulu.

The existence of dance treatises emanating from the Andhra region is further proof that dance traditions were widely prevalent here. The Nritta Ratnavali, written by Jayappa Senapati (around the mid-13th century), provides a vivid description of the various dance forms in vogue in that area, and describes the desi elements of the dance styles. The Sringara Rasamanjari elaborates on saatvika abhinaya and rasotpatti. Later texts include the Naatya Pradeepamu of Lepakshi Venkata Narayana Kavi, which lays out a grammar and structure for dance.

Particularly noteworthy of mention is the Abhinaya Swayambodhini, written in the Twenties by Devulapalli Veeraraghava Sastri. In his preface the author laments the general decline in the standard of dance of those years, and expresses the hope that his text would help elevate the art of the Kalavantulu to its former pristine glory. In order to aid generations of such artists, he lists several varnams, padams, javalis, keertanams and mangalams, and provides detailed, virtually line-by-line, instructions on how these should be rendered.

A parallel dance tradition in the form of Yakshaganas, believed to be the precursors to the Kuchipudi Bhagavta Mela tradition, also existed in the Andhra region. The origin of Yakshagana is presumed to lie in the ballads sung by members of the Jakkulu tribe, the term a corrupt form of Sanskrit word Yaksha. Although the earliest such references can be traced to the early 11th century, scholars believe that Yakshaganas then were mostly rendered in song, rather than as plays or dance dramas. Its evolution into the more familiar dance-drama format probably dates back to the 16th century. There are numerous instances of Yakshaganas being staged in royal courts, and of royalty commissioning and even writing scripts for Yakshaganas. Extremely popular in its appeal, and performed both by men and women, over 500 Yakshaganas have been recorded in the centuries since.

With the spread to Andhra Pradesh of the Bhakti Movement, the tradition of itinerant dancers spreading the message of Vaishnavism also assumed importance. These dance troupes, referred to as Bhagavata Melams, consisted only of male Brahmin dancers, who also performed female roles. Thus evolved the highly-developed art of female impersonation, stree veysham. The poetic structure and presentational formats of these Bhagavatams were - and continue to be - derived from the Yakshagana traditions, although the themes are clearly different.

Madula Janakamma, temple dancer of Manepalli, A.P.

There is reason to believe that the Bhagavatams danced by the Kalavantulu were also an outcome of the Bhakti movement, at least indirectly. There are many similarities between the Kalapams performed by the Bhagavata Mela brahmins of Kuchipudi and those performed by the Kalavantulu. The co-existence of multiple dance traditions must have provided ample opportunity for artistic give and take, while maintaining distinct identities. The creation of Bhamakalapam (Parijata Apaharanamu) - as it was rendered by the Bhagavata Mela brahmins - is attributed, certainly in legend, to Siddhendra Yogi, although scholars differed on the exact dates when he lived. It would appear that he consolidated dance techniques that already existed in Andhra to give shape to his Bhamakalapam in its performative aspect. Presently, there is need for trained linguists to trace such exchanges and links and to date the various Kalapam librettos of both male and female traditions.

It was only around the Thirties that an earlier vision of Kuchipudi Bhagavata Melam as a solo presentation began to take shape through the efforts to Vedantam Lakshminarayana Sastri and others. Even though excerpts from Bhamakalapam were still danced, nritya and nritta items (such as shabdams and jatiswaram, respectively) were composed to form a bulk of the solo repertoire. Such was its popular appeal that Kuchipudi began to be sustained and nurtured not only in the region of its origins, but literally, all over the world.

This evolution became possible because Kuchipudi continued to receive sustenance through the ages. The transition from itinerant dance troupes to a settled system of dance was facilitated by the grant of villages and lands where the families of the dance practitioners could settle. The grant of lands in what is now Kuchipudi village in Krishna district by Abul Hasan Tana Shah is, of course, famous; but there were others as well. For example, in the first few decades of the eighteenth century, the Nawab of Banganapalli, made to families of Kuchipudi dancers, grants of land in what is now Kurnool district. On the other hand, the Kalavantulu lost both royal patronage and temple support. The passing of the Abolition of Devadasi Act sealed their fate. Where Yakshagana principles at least remained through Kuchipudi dance, other dance forms were not so fortunate.

Today, many people are working at reclaiming these nearly-lost traditions. Luckily, the existing vitality of Kuchipudi and the ability of aged Kalavantulu to recall their art and their eagerness to impart their knowledge to future generations makes this exercise entirely possible. My own experience in working with these exceptional artists for Vilasini Natyam has not only provided inspiration and hope, but also yielded valuable material for a life time of study.